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QUR'AN AND ISMA'ILI TA'WIL
By Asghar Ali Engineer
Qur'an is divine but its interpretation is human and hence there have been
different interpretations of various Qur'anic verses. The differences in
interpretation of the Qur'anic verses was not a later development but
began shortly after the death of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Different
prominent companions of the Prophet began to differ from each other and
with the passage of time these differences also deepened in their scope.
There were various reasons for these differences. First and foremost was
of course the differences due to understanding. Any text, and much more so
the divine text which also tends to be symbolic, is understood depending
on ones own mental and intellectual capacity. Also, the understanding of
these verses depends on ones own personal or family background; the tribal
background and the community ethos also would play an important role.
The Muslims were also embroiled in political disputes with the passage of
time and these disputes also got reflected in interpretation of the
Qur'anic verses. The disputing parties tried to legitimise their
respective positions through either hadith or interpretation of the
Qur'anic verses which suited their position.
Also, many sects came into existence in the early period of Islam itself
and every sect tried to prove its authenticity by interpreting the
Qur'anic verses in keeping with their doctrines. The formation and
doctrinal differences of these have been dealt with in various early books
like Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq of Baghdadi and others. Each of these sects
tried to interpret various Qur'anic verses in their own way. And it became
impossible to resolve both political as well as doctrinal differences.
There also evolved differences between the jurists (fuqaha'). These
jurists also interpreted the Qur'anic verses in keeping with their
understanding of juristic issues. Thus within the Sunni Islam there
developed four major schools of fiqh (jurisprudence). The same is true of
hadith literature.
Among other reasons for different interpretations of the Qur'anic verses
the sectarian differences play most important and interesting role. In
fact it will be no exaggeration to say that among other reasons the
sectarian differences played very significant role in differing
interpretation of the Qur'anic verses. And among other sectarian
differences the differences between Sunnis and Shi'as assumed much more
controversial role. No other two sects of Islam have differed as much as
the Sunnis and Shi'as in understanding and interpretation of certain
Qur'anic verses. It was on account of this that the Sunni corpus of hadith
developed separately from that of Shi'as.
Independent Interpretation
The Shi'as also subsequently sub-divided into number of subsects the main
division being between the Ithna Asharis and Isma'ilis. The Isma'ilis
developed their own independent interpretation of the Qur'anic verses
which radically differs from not only the Sunni interpretation but also
the mainstream Shi'a interpretation. It is the Isma'ili interpretation
that we would deal with in this paper. We have broadly referred to the
Isma'ili doctrines in one of our earlier papers. We would briefly
summarise it here for ready reference of our readers.
The Isma'ilis branched off from the Ithna Ashari Shi'as on the question of
succession to the fifth (and according to the Ithna Asharis the sixth)
Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. It should be noted that the doctrine of imamah is
very central to the Shi'a Islam as the doctrine of Khilafah is to the
Sunni Islam. According to the Shi'a belief the imam must belong to the
progeny of Fatima and 'Ali and thus son will always succeed the father.
This doctrine remains central whichever the Shi'a sect. And most of the
differences among the Shi'a sub-sects, though not always, have been on the
question of succession as to which son succeeded the previous Imam.
The Hanafiyas believed that it was Ali's son Muhammad bin Hanifa who
succeeded as Imam. Similarly the Zaidi Shi'as believed that it was Zaid,
the son of Imam Zain al-Abidin who succeeded him. The Zaidi Shi'as are
found mostly in the Yemen. Similarly, the Isma'ili Shi'as believe that it
was Isma'il who succeeded Imam J'afar al-Sadiq whereas the Ithna Asharis
believe that it was Musa Kazim who became imam after Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.
The chain of imamah as far as the Ithna Asharis are concerned stopped with
the seclusion of the 12th imam whose reappearance is awaited by them. And
as far as the Isma'ilis are concerned the office of imama continued in the
progeny of Isma'il and the 21st imam Taiyyib went into seclusion. But
unlike the Ithna Asharis the Isma'ilis do not believe that 21st imam will
reappear; they, on the other hand, believe that the imama continues in his
progeny and that the imam of the time from his progeny will appear one
day.
It is also to be noted that the Isma'ilis also split on the question of
succession of imama after Imam Mustansir billah. A section of the
Isma'ilis believed that Mustansir had nominated his younger son Must'ali
as his successor and the other section believed that Nizar, his elder son,
was nominated as Mustansir's successor. And Imam Taiyyib belongs to the
Must'alian stream.
Manifest and Hidden Meaning
Here in this paper we will be dealing mainly with the interpretation of
the Qur'an by the Isma'ilis before the split between the Musta'lians and
the Nizaris. The Druzes are also basically Isma'ilis and we will deal with
Druzes in a separate paper. The Druzes split off from the Isma'ilis after
the death of Imam Hakim. The Druzes developed their own interpretation of
the Qur'an which again radically differs from the mainstream Isma'ilis.
The Isma'ilis, like all other Shi'as believe in the hidden meaning of the
Qur'an which they refer to as ta'wil. In the tafsir literature of Sunni
Islam the words tafsir and ta'wil are used almost synonymously. But in the
Shi'a Islam both have distinct meaning. Tafsir in Shi'a Islam refers to
the manifest meaning of the Qur'an and ta'wil refers to its hidden
meaning.
The Sunnis and Shi'as differ on the meaning of the sixth verse of the
chapter three i.e. the chapter on "Ali Imran". According to the
Sunni commentators this verse means that "None knows its
interpretation (ta'wil i.e. the hidden meaning) save Allah and the
Rasikhun fi' al'ilm (i.e. those firmly rooted in knowledge) say: We
believe in it, it is all from our Lord." Thus according to the Sunni
commentators of the Qur'an Allah alone has the knowledge of ta'wil and the
Rasikhun fi' al-'ilm (i.e. the great 'Ulama) do not possess that knowledge
and they only believe that it is known only to Allah.
The Shi'ahs, on the other hand, believe that the knowledge of ta'wil is
possessed by the al-rasikhun fi' al-'ilm also and these rasikhun in 'ilm
are nothing but the imams from the progeny of Fatima and 'Ali. Not only
Allah but the holy Prophet (PBUH), his legatee (wasi) and imams from his
progeny also possess the knowledge of ta'wil. Now the most important
question is what is this ta'wil?. In the Isma'ili literature it is also
referred to as 'ilm al-ladunni which passes orally from Prophet to his
wasi and from wasi to imam and from one imam to another.
But if we go historically then one finds the exposition of ta'wil
literature much later i.e. during the Abbasid period, in fact, after the
controversy about the appointment of Isma'il and the subsequent split in
the Shi'a community. The hidden meaning of the Qur'anic verses is
attempted by the Isma'ili imams and da'is (i.e. missionaries and summoners
to the Isma'ili faith) after the spread of Greek knowledge in the Islamic
world.
We have already written about The Rasa'il Ikhwanus Safa i.e. the Epistles
of the Brethren of Purity in a separate paper. These epistles are of great
importance in the Isma'ili literature. These epistles though do not
attempt exposition of ta'wil systematically but do contain elements of it
and could be taken as the beginning of the exposition of the discipline of
ta'wil. Its fifty-third epistle supposedly deals with this.
Unique to the Isma'ili Sect
The Isma'ili da'is particularly Saiyyidna Yaqub al-Sijistani, Saiyyidna
Ja'far Mansur al-Yaman, Saiyyidna Qadi al-Nu'man, Saiyyidna Hamiduddin
Kirmani, Saiyyidna Muayyad Shirazi, Saiyyidna Hatim and several others
have played a great role in developing this unique discipline. It will be
no exaggeration to say that 'ilm al-ta'wil is really unique to the
Isma'ili sect and it was a grand attempt to synthesise the all available
knowledge of the time - particularly the Greek knowledge popularised by
the Abbasids through translations of the Greek classics into Arabic - with
the Islamic teachings.
Of course the Isma'ilis believe that the 'ilm of ta'wil did not develop
with the popularisation of the Greek knowledge but is part of the 'ilm al-nubuwwat
(i.e. the Prophetic knowledge) passed on from imam to imam as referred to
earlier. But historically speaking we do not find its record before the
Epistles of Ikhwanus Safa were compiled. One can say that this knowledge
of ta'wil among the Isma'ilis was reduced to writing only when faced with
the challenge of the Greek knowledge.
Ash'aris among the Shi'as met this challenge by totally opposing the Greek
philosophy (though using its tools to refute it) while the Isma'ilis among
the Shi'as met this challenge by attempting a creative synthesis of the
Greek knowledge including its cosmogony with the basic teachings of Islam.
Thus the Ash'aris and the Isma'ilis carved out different ways of meeting
the challenge of the Greek philosophy and its great impact on the Islamic
world. This impact should not be underrated.
The Ismai'ili ta'wil is based on reason. The word ta'wil in Arabic means
to go to the first, primary or basic meaning of the word. According to the
Isma'ilis each and every verse of the Qur'an has basic meaning or hidden
meaning apart from the manifest or secondary meaning. According to them a
mu'min is one who knows and believes in the hidden or original meaning (batin)
of the Qur'anic verses.
The Isma'ilis maintain that there is difference between a Muslim and a
Mu'min. One who recites the kalima and performs all the manifest rituals (zahiri)
like offering prayers, fasting, giving zakat, performing haj etc. is a
Muslim. But a mu'min is more than being a Muslim. A Mu'min is one who not
only performs the zahiri rituals but also believes in batin, the real, the
original, the intended, meaning of these rituals.
The Isma'ilis quote the verse 14 of the chapter 49 which reads as follows:
"The dwellers of the desert say: We believe (amanna). Say: You
believe not, but say, We submit (aslamna); and faith (iman) has not yet
entered into your hearts." Thus this verse, the Isma'ili theologians
point out, clearly makes distinction between Islam and Iman, between those
who submit (Muslims) and those who believe (Mu'min). Iman, according to
them is not mere acceptance of what is manifest zahir but sincere belief
in batin (the hidden, the original).
Strictly Guided Secret
Before we proceed further it is necessary to understand what is batin or
what is the way ta'wil is done? It is also important to note that ordinary
people are not supposed to know the original meaning or the ta'wil. It is
only the chosen few or the initiated who are entitled to know. The
contents of ta'wil was kept a strictly guided secret even from ordinary
believers. The reason was obvious.
The Isma'ilis were looked upon as heretics by the orthodox Muslims. Imam
Ghazali also wrote a book on Batinis and condemned them. They were accused
of believing in hulul and tanasukh i.e. belief in Imam being God and
transmigration of souls though it is not true. Even Dr. Kamil Husain, who
was chairman of the department of Isma'ili Studies, Al-Azhar, Cairo,
strongly refuted such allegations. But the Isma'ilis were greatly
misunderstood about their real beliefs.
The Isma'ilis, for fear of such condemnations had to hide from general
Muslims their beliefs in batini theology and reveal it only to the chosen
or initiated few. The knowledge of batin was revealed to a person only
after ensuring his/her sincerity and faithfulness. Even today the ordinary
Bohras do not have any knowledge of ta'wil though there is no such fear as
it prevailed in those days from the Sunni orthodox 'ulama.
According to the Isma'ilis there is whole ideal system called mathal and
here on earth there is a corresponding system called mamthul
(representative of the ideal). To understand this it is necessary to know
that Allah is a totally transcendent Being who cannot be comprehended by
human mind at all. He transcends everything conceivable and is just
incomprehensible. He has no attributes whatsoever. He is also not actively
involved in creation of the universe. He only created the 'uqul
(intellects made of pure light). The intellects are fine beings made of
light. The matter, as opposed to light, is kathif (i.e. heavy and dark).
Allah or the Ultimate Being has no role in creation of matter. He is
referred to by Saiyyidna Yaqub al-Sijistani as Mubd'i al-Mubdi'at (i.e.
the Creator of the creators. His role ceased with creation of the 'Uqul
(i.e. the Intellects). Allah created only light, not darkness. One cannot
attribute creation of darkness and kathafat (heaviness) to Him.
Matter was created by the tenth Intellect also called 'ashir-i-mudabbir
(i.e. the Tenth Intellect managing the universe). All the matter
representing kathafat (heaviness and darkness). Since the Tenth Intellect
('Ashir-e-Mudabbir) is responsible for creation of matter and this
universe it is his responsibility to reconvert this darkness and heaviness
into light (nur). The corresponding being on earth to the Tenth Intellect
is the Prophet. Thus the Prophet is the mamthul of 'Ashir-e-Mudabbir on
earth. He assists him (i.e. the Tenth Intellect) in transforming the
kathafat (darkness and heaviness) into latafat (nur).
Representative of the Tenth Intellect
The Prophet shows the right path to the people and has been described by
the Qur'an as sirajan munirah (i.e. the lighted lamp) for this reason. He
transforms the human beings into light (nur). After the Prophet it is the
Imam who performs this function. And as there cannot be any Prophet after
Muhammad (PBUH), he is succeeded by Imams from the progeny of Fatima, his
daughter and 'Ali, her husband. According to the Isma'ili beliefs this
earth can never remain without Imam, a spiritual guide, an active agent (mamthul
of Ashir-e-Mudabbir) on earth. An Isma'ili da'i wrote an epistle
Ithbat-ul-Imamah to prove this.
Thus Imam on earth is the representative of the Tenth Intellect and hence
commands highest respect of the believers. He has all the attributes of
the Tenth Intellect and since Allah has no attributes (He transcends all
attributes and is beyond them), these attributes apply to the Tenth
Intellect. Therefore Imam who is mamthul of the Tenth Intellect on earth
also has these attributes on earth. It is this theory of attributes which
was misunderstood by the opponents of the Fatimi Imams as the belief in
hulul i.e. descent of God into the person of Imam. Dr.Kamil Husain has
discussed this in detail in his Muqaddimah (introduction) to the Diwan of
Saiyyidna Mua'yyad Shirazi. The person of Imam does not correspond to
Allah but to the Tenth Intellect, as pointed out above.
The Isma'ilis (also referred to as the Fatimids or those following the
Fatimi Da'wah) also believe in the cyclical theory of history. Since it is
the duty of the Tenth Intellect to convert total darkness and kathafat in
the universe into light in every cycle of history a portion of darkness is
reconverted into light and these cycles will continue until entire matter
is reconverted into nur (light) and there is no more kathafat in this
universe.
In every cycle an Adam is created and the chain of prophethood ends with
the last Prophet who is in turn succeeded by imams and lastly, in every
cycle there appears what is known as Qa'im al-qiyamah (i.e. one who brings
about the Day of Judgement, the Qiyamat). The cycle ends with the Qa'im
al-Qiyamah and a definite portion of dark matter is converted into light
in that cycle. Thus, according to this theory, these cycles will continue
until there is no more matter in this universe and all matter there in is
transformed into latafat i.e. light and it is light which will ultimately
prevail. This, in short, is the Isma'ili cyclical theory of history of
this universe.
Some of the important books of ta'wil and batini 'ulum are the Kitab al-Shawahid
wa al-Bayan of Saiyyidna Mansur al-Yaman, Ta'wil al-Da'a'im of Saiyyidna
Qadi al-Nu'man, Rahat al-'Aql by Saiyyidna Hamiduddin Kirmani, Al-Majalis
of Saiyyidna Mua'yyad Shirazi etc. These books contain the highest
achievements of the Isma'ili or Fatimi missionaries as far as the
knowledge of batin is concerned. We will give some examples of 'ilm al-ta'wil
from these books.
Saiyyidna Qadi al-Nu'man who compiled the celebrated book of Isma'ili
jurisprudence al-Da'a'im al-Islam, also compiled Ta'wil al-Da'a'im. In
this latter work Qadi Nu'man describes the original meanings of all the
elements of shari'ah and all the related rituals. Qadi N'uman first
emphasises that a true believer has to strike balance between the zahir
and batin i.e. what is manifest and what is original intent of the
shari'ah rituals.
Qadi Nu'man had to lay this emphasis on the balance between zahir and
batin because some extremists among the Isma'ilis had declared that the
shari'ah is suspended (ta'til al-shari'ah) and it is no more necessary to
observe the external rituals for those who know 'ilm al-batin. The
Qaramitah, an extremist sect of the Isma'ilis had ceased to observe the
zahiri shari'ah. The Nizaris later did the same thing.
The Isma'ilis, as pointed out in an earlier paper, believe in seven
pillars of Islam as opposed to other Muslims who believe in five pillars.
The two additional pillars are walayah (the love of the family of the
Prophet - ahl al-bayt) and taharah (cleanliness). Taharah really means
spiritual cleanliness and removal of all spiritual pollutants. The Qadi
describes in his Ta'wil al-Da'a'im the hidden meaning of all the seven
da'a'im, (pillars) one by one.
Sajdah in Reality Implies Obedience
The very first pillar according to the Isma'ilis is walayat (love of the
family of the Prophet). According to the Qadi each pillar represents one
of the great prophets from Adam to Muhammad. Adam represents walayah. Adam
was the first prophet whose walayah was made obligatory on the angels and
the angels were made to prostrate before him or perform sajdah before him.
Sajdah in reality implies obedience. And this is walayah. Adam is the
first of all the prophets and his walayah is the walayah of all the
succeeding prophets and imams. Those who do not have love of Adam cannot
achieve salvation.
The second pillar, according to the Isma'ili theology, is taharah (i.e.
purity). The second prophet Nuh (Noah) represents taharah. Nuh was sent
for purification of mankind. Whatever sins were committed during and after
Adam's time Nuh came to purify them and he is one of the great prophets, a
prophet with his own shari'ah. The flood water which is associated with
Nuh, symbolises purity as water is needed for purity from dirt and water
in batin means 'ilm (knowledge of ultimate reality) and it is through
knowledge that spiritual purity can be attained.
And the third pillar is Salah (i.e. prayer) and Qadi Nu'man ascribes it to
the Prophet Ibrahim. It is he who constructed Baytullah i.e. the House of
Allah in Mecca and Allah made this House the Qiblah (i.e. the direction in
which the Muslims turn to pray). Hazrat Ibrahim also has great status
among the prophets and he is also described as hanif in the holy Qur'an
i.e. one who is inclined towards truth.
And it is the prophet Musa who represents zakat. He is the first prophet
who is said to have asked Pharaoh (Fir'aun) to purify himself (tazakka Ð
see the verse 79:16). Musa was the first prophet whom Allah called upon to
preach to Fir'aun purity of self (tazkiyah). Zakat has essentially to do
with purification. It is through zakat that one purifies ones wealth by
giving away one portion of it to the needy and poor.
The saum (fasting) is related to the prophet Isa (Christ). Saum in ta'wil
actually means keeping silent about the batin (i.e. hidden truth of the
injunctions of shari'ah). It was Isa's mother Mariyam (Mary) who was asked
by Allah to say to her people that "I have vowed a fast to the
Beneficient, so I will not speak to any man today." (19:26). Thus it
will be seen that in this verse fasting is directly related to keeping
silent (about the knowledge of batin).
Similarly haj is related to the last of the prophets Muhammad (PBUH). It
is he who first required Muslims to perform haj and expounded all its
related manasik (i.e. rituals pertaining to haj). Though the Arabs used to
perform haj before Islam but the manasik appointed by Allah in the Qur'an
did not exist. Allah says about the pre-Islamic Arabs and their prayer
near the Ka'bah "And their prayer at the House is nothing but
whistling and clapping of hands." (8:35). And the disbelievers used
to circumambulate around Ka'bah in a state of nakedness. It is the holy
Prophet who abolished such abominable practice. They had also installed
idols all around Ka'bah whom they used to worship. It is Prophet Muhammad
who demolished these idols. He then appointed the rituals for the haj.
Prophet Muhammad has Merit Over All Other
Prophets
And the last of the pillars of Islam is jihad and it is related to the
seventh of the chain of imams. The Isma'ilis (or the Fatimids) give great
importance to every seventh imam in the chain of Fatimi imams. The seventh
imam is also called natiq (i.e. Speaker). Thus every seventh imam will
speak with the permission of Allah about His injunctions and give them a
new interpretation through his exertions or through waging war to purify
His religion. The Qa'im al-Qiyamah, referred to above, will also be the
seventh of the chain of imams and he will be the last of the seventh imams
and through him the ummah will be unified on the shari'ah of the Prophet
Muhammad. Thus Prophet Muhammad has merit over all other prophets in the
sense that two pillars of Islam - haj and jihad - have been related to him
and his progeny.
Saiyyidna Qadi Al-Nu'man in his Ta'wil al-Da'a'im lays great stress on 'ilm
(knowledge). 'Ilm is very fundamental to the Isma'ili system. 'Ilm is
wazir (minister) to iman (faith). Faith draws sustenance through 'ilm
(knowledge). The Qadi says that 'ilm applies to both zahir (manifest) and
batin (hidden). Thus a mu'min becomes true person of faith through iman
and 'ilm. As the human body can be purified only by water, the soul of a
mu'min can be purified only by knowledge. And as amwal (material wealth)
cannot be given to undeserving persons or those weak of understanding (sufaha'
see verse 4:5), knowledge also cannot be imparted to those who do not
deserve.
Thus one who has been favoured by Allah through knowledge, he should not
impart it to undeserving persons. In other words the knowledge of batin
can be imparted only to deserving persons whose iman (faith) is strong and
unwavering and it will become even more stronger through such knowledge.
But if it is imparted to undeserving person, his faith may be weakened and
his doubts might increase. Also, one should not be miserly in imparting
knowledge of ta'wil to deserving people and he should not be extravagant
with the undeserving.
Prayer system (salah) in its essence means establishing the system of
da'wah. Wherever the Qur'an speaks of salah it does not say 'read prayer'
but says 'establish prayer' (aqim al-salah) which in fact means establish
the da'wah headed by the imam who is, after the Prophet, the highest
representative of the community of the faithfuls. As one is required to
come to prayers at appropriate time, one is required to devote ones energy
in establishing the da'wah (mission) at suitable times and make all
possible efforts for it. As the soul enriches itself through prayers, a
faithful enriches one's self by his/her efforts to establish the mission
for the faithfuls.
In short these are some of the prominent features of the Isma'ili ta'wil.
In this brief essay we cannot do full justice to it. But an attempt has
been made here to highlight its essential features. The Fatimi Da'is have
written hundreds of books on this subject which are available to the
scholars. This essay can only initiate those interested into the subject.
Source: http://www.dawoodi-bohras.com
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